Phil Taylor's papers
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Use and Abuse of Media in Vulnerable Societies by M Frohard & J Temin 
About the Report Across the globe, media have been used as tools to inflame grievances and accelerate the escalation towards violent conflict. In Rwanda radio was used to lay the groundwork for genocide. In Serbia television was manipulated to stir ethnic tensions prior to civil war. In the former Soviet republic of Georgia territorial disputes were exacerbated by the propagation of nationalist mythology in the media. In light of this historical evidence, Internews Network, which works in 38 countries and fosters pluralistic independent media in emerging democracies and focuses its media development efforts on reducing conflict within and between countries, undertook an analysis of media abuse by actors intent on inciting conflict. The resulting framework, published here, is intended to help media assistance organizations direct media interventions to where they are most needed and can be most beneficial in combating the use of media in promoting conflict. It is based on the belief that robust independent media can play a critical watchdog role in societies vulnerable to civil conflict, but that the capacity of underdeveloped media to resist insidious abuse and manipulation is often limited. The analysis was conducted by Mark Frohardt, Internews Network Regional Director for Africa, and Jonathan Temin, Internews Network Program Associate. Briefly Conventional media - radio, television and newspapers - usually play a positive and informative role in society. However, there are many documented cases of media being manipulated by actors intent on instigating violent conflict. This framework analyzes the role of media in vulnerable societies, defined as societies highly susceptible to movement towards civil conflict and/or repressive rule. The framework is designed to enable policymakers to identify societies that may be particularly vulnerable to media abuse while concurrently informing decisions on the most appropriate type and timing of media interventions. The authors assert that a number of "clues to conflict" can be observed in the media landscape, clues that suggest a society is vulnerable to abuse by actors intent on instigating conflict, or simply that poor journalism may play a role in precipitating conflict. These "clues to conflict" are divided into two categories. "Structural indicators" concern media outlets, media professionals or government institutions concerned with media; they can include media variety and plurality, degree of journalist isolation, and the legal environment for media. "Content indicators" concern content designed to create fear (such as a focus on past atrocities and history of ethnic hatred) or content designed to create a sense of inevitability and resignation to conflict (such as discrediting alternatives to conflict). In response to the clues to conflict, a number of "opportunities for intervention" are suggested. These media interventions fall into three categories: "structural interventions," such as strengthening domestic and international journalist networks; "content specific interventions," such as issue-oriented training; and "aggressive interventions," such as radio and television jamming. Early interventions are less expensive and more effective than later interventions, because by the time media abuse is widespread there may be little or no recourse. Four recommendations to the international community are made: media in vulnerable societies should be monitored; there should be greater collaboration between media organizations and conflict resolution organization; media organizations need to build a better case for monitoring and early intervention and encourage appropriate donor support; and a systematic review of media behavior in vulnerable society should be conducted to enhance the international community's understanding of this important dynamic. Annotated Bibliography Article 19, Broadcasting Genocide: Censorship, Propaganda & State-Sponsored Violence in Rwanda 1990-1994 (London: Article 19, 1996) Thorough account of media behavior prior to genocide, meticulously researched. Includes quotes from print and electronic media that are difficult to find elsewhere. Giga Bokeria, Givi Targamadze and Levan Ramishvili, "Georgian Media in the 90s: A Step to Liberty," (Tbilisi: UNDP, 1997) Thorough analysis of recent history of Georgian media, including detailed information about media scene and structure. Some discussion of how media behavior has inflamed ethnic tensions and promoted conflict. Alan Davis (ed.), Regional Media in Conflict (PDF) (London: Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 2000) Includes informative overview with good discussion of incitement to violence. Chapters include: Ahmed Buric, "The Media War and Peace in Bosnia"; Giorgo Topouria, "Media and Civil Conflicts in Georgia"; Khuy Sokhoeun, "The Media as Political Pawns in the Fight for Cambodia"; and Jannie Bates, "Media in New South Africa." Department for International Development, "Working with the Media in Conflicts and other Emergencies" (PDF) (London: DFID, 2000) Includes discussion of areas of media support interest for DFID. Includes section on appraising independent media assistance. Alison Des Forges, Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1999) Broad account of Rwandan genocide. Section on "Propaganda and Practice" has strong focus on media and incitement to genocide; particular focus on Radio Mille Collines. Richard Fardon and Graham Furniss (eds.), African Broadcast Cultures: Radio in Transition (Oxford: James Currey Publishers, 2000) Includes both thematic chapters and case studies; strong focus on local level. Broad range of contributions, including chapters on Benin, Niger, Zambia, Rwanda, Sudan and Sierra Leone. Eytan Gilboa (ed.), Media and Conflict: Framing Issues, Making Policy, Shaping Opinions (New York: Transnational Publishers Inc., 2002) Defines "conflict" very broadly - not just armed conflict but trade wars, etc. Includes wide variety of contributions, including chapters on South Africa, Sudan, Middle East, Central America and Kosovo. Francoise Hampson, "Incitement and the Media," Papers in the Theory and Practice of Human Rights No 3, Human Rights Centre, University of Essex, 1993 Focus is on human rights law and media. Provides some evidence of media abuse and incitement to violence in Former Republic of Yugoslavia, but not as much as title suggests. Loretta Hieber, Lifeline Media: Reaching populations in crisis - A guide to developing media projects in conflict situations (Geneva: Media Action International, 2001) Focus is largely on reporting during humanitarian emergencies, but also discusses design and assessment of media programs. Discusses conflict between "objective journalism" and "interventionist journalism," but argues that they are not mutually exclusive. Loretta Hieber, "Media as Intervention: A Report from the Field," Track Two 7:4, December 1998 Includes overview of role of media in conflict in Rwanda and Northern Ireland and analysis of NGO work in Rwanda, Burundi and Liberia. David Hoffman, "Beyond Public Diplomacy" Foreign Affairs (March/April 2002) Focus on Middle East and Asia. Analyzes US failure in public diplomacy juxtaposed against Al Qaeda's successes. Ross Howard, "An Operational Framework for Media and Peacebuilding," (PDF) (Vancouver: Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, 2002) Thorough analysis of various stages of conflict and role of media at each stage. Discusses potential points of media intervention and catalogs past interventions. Ross Howard, "Conflict sensitive journalism," (Copenhagen: International Media Support and Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, 2003) Argues for "conflict sensitive journalism," as opposed to conventional journalism, and analyzes journalism's unconscious roles. Provides examples of "traditional reporting" and "conflict sensitive reporting." Ross Howard, "Media and Peacebuilding: Mapping the Possibilities," (PDF) Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society Defines five stages in "continuum of intervention" ranging from Stage One ("conventional journalism as we know it") to Stage Five ("directly interventionist media programming"). Goran Hyden, Michael Leslie and Folu F. Ogundimu (eds.), Media and Democracy in Africa (London: Transaction Publishers, 2002) Includes chapters on media law, political reform, internet, media ownership, American reporting and alternative small media. IMPACS, "The Media and Peacebuilding: A Roundtable Consultation," (PDF) (Vancouver: Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, 1999) Includes analysis of the "role of the media in a peacebuilding intervention" and "design and implementation of media interventions in support of peace." Also includes a case study of media in the Philippines. Amadu Wurie Khan, "Journalism & Armed Conflict in Africa: The Civil War in Sierra Leone," Review of African Political Economy 78, 1998 Excellent analysis, very detailed. Khan: "The article argues that while there are instances of overt and calculated bias in reporting of the civil war [in Sierra Leone], it is very difficult to draw a clear distinction between 'intended' and 'unintended' bias." Peter Krug and Monroe E. Price, "The Enabling Environment for Free and Independent Media" (PDF) Paper prepared by Programme in Comparative Media Law & Policy, Oxford University, 2000 Not specific to conflict, but excellent analysis of what is needed for independent media to flourish; conclusions can be applied to pre- and post-conflict contexts. Rob Manoff, "Role Plays: Potential media roles in conflict prevention and management," Track Two 7:4, December 1998 Includes list and description of "potential media roles in the prevention and management of conflict," including providing an emotional outlet, encouraging a balance of power, and face saving and consensus building. Robert Karl Manoff, "Telling the Truth to Peoples at Risk: Some Introductory Thoughts on Media & Conflict" Strong focus on questions of "objective journalism" versus "interventionist journalism." Jamie F. Metzl, "Information Intervention: When Switching Channels Isn't Enough," Foreign Affairs (Nov/Dec 1997) Focus on Rwanda with mention of other instances of media abuse. Advocates aggressive, UN-led media interventions. Jamie F. Metzl, "Rwandan Genocide and the International Law of Radio Jamming" American Journal of International Law 91 (October 1997) Analysis of legal considerations surrounding radio jamming. Relatively little focus on Rwanda itself. Netherlands Association of Journalists, "Report of a Seminar: 'The Role of the Media in Conflict Prevention and Peace Building,'" (PDF) (The Hague: Netherlands Association of Journalists, 2002) Includes text of three speeches given at conference, working group findings and recommendations and "key issues and points of debate." Close attention paid to media in Middle East, Balkans and Indonesia. Jimmy Ocitti, "Media and Democracy in Africa: Mutual Political Bedfellows or Implacable Arch-foes" (PDF) (Cambridge: Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, 1999) Excellent overview of history of media in Africa, particular focus on history of media repression and state control. Abiodun Onadipa and David Lord, "African Media and Conflict," Conciliation Resources Good summary of media laws, media history and media harassment in Africa. Includes contributions from African journalists "in their own words" Monroe E. Price and Mark Thompson, eds. Forging Peace: Intervention, Human Rights and the Management of Media Space (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002) Includes chapters on Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda, Kosovo and East Timor. Lengthy analysis of various forms of media interventions with particular focus on legal issues surrounding media interventions. Monroe E. Price (ed.), "Restructuring the Media in Post-Conflict Societies - Four Perspectives: The Experience of Intergovernmental and Non-Governmental Organizations" (PDF) Background paper for UNESCO World Press Day conference 2000 Includes case studies of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cambodia, Kosovo and Rwanda. Radio Netherlands, "Dossier on Counteracting Hate Media" Information on "hate radio" in Burundi, DRC, Rwanda, Middle East, Europe, Asia and North America. Information on "peace radio" in Burundi, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Tanzania and other areas. Robert Rotberg and Thomas Weiss (eds.), From Massacres to Genocide: The Media, Public Policy, and Humanitarian Crises (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1996) Focus on international media coverage of humanitarian emergencies. "Suffering in Silence: Media Coverage of War and Famine in the Sudan" by Steven Livingston an interesting analysis of dearth of coverage of Sudan relative to Somalia. Mark Thompson, Forging War: The Media in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Luton: University of Luton Press, 1999) Unparalleled analysis of media behavior prior to and during conflict in the region. 1999 edition includes important additions, including "The Captive Mind" by Warren Zimmerman and reviews of earlier editions of Forging War. |
EXHIBITS media_peace_full_report.pdf  |